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EMIS 2010 Journal Articles 2010

Changes in the prevalence of self-reported sexually transmitted bacterial infections from 2010 and 2017 in two large European samples of men having sex with men – is it time to re-evaluate STI-screening as a control strategy?

PLoS ONE, 2021; 16(3): e0248582 (doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248582).

Authors: Ulrich Marcus, Massimo Mirandola, Susanne B Schink, Lorenzo Gios, Axel J Schmidt

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Many European countries reported increased numbers of syphilis, gonorrhoea and chlamydia diagnoses among men who have sex with men (MSM) in recent years. Behaviour changes and increased testing are thought to drive these increases.

Methods: In 2010 and 2017, two large online surveys for MSM in Europe (EMIS-2010, EMIS-2017) collected self-reported data on STI diagnoses in the previous 12 months, diagnostic procedures, STI symptoms when testing, number of sexual partners, and sexual behaviours such as condom use during the last intercourse with a non-steady partner in 46 European countries. Multivariate regression models were used to analyse factors associated with diagnoses of syphilis, gonorrhoea/chlamydia, and respective diagnoses classified as symptomatic and asymptomatic. If applicable, they included country-level screening rates.

Results: Questions on STI diagnoses and sexual behaviours were answered by 156,018 (2010) and 125,837 (2017) participants. Between 2010 and 2017, overall diagnoses with gonorrhoea/chlamydia and syphilis increased by 76% and 83% across countries. Increases were more pronounced for asymptomatic compared to symptomatic infections. The proportion of respondents screened and the frequency of screening grew considerably. Condomless anal intercourse with the last non-steady partner rose by 62%; self-reported partner numbers grew. Increased syphilis diagnoses were largely explained by behavioural changes (including more frequent screening). Gonorrhoea/chlamydia increases were mainly explained by more screening and a change in testing performance. A country variable representing the proportion of men screened for asymptomatic infection was positively associated with reporting symptomatic gonorrhoea/chlamydia, but not syphilis.

Discussion/Conclusion: The positive association of country-level screening rates with the proportion of symptomatic infections with gonorrhoea/chlamydia may indicate a paradoxical effect of screening on incidence of symptomatic infections. Treatment of asymptomatic men might render them more susceptible to new infections, while spontaneous clearance may result in reduced susceptibility. Before expanding screening programmes, evidence of the effects of screening and treatment is warranted.

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

Potential alcohol use disorder among MSM in Ireland – Findings from the European MSM internet survey (EMIS 2017)

Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 2021; 223: 108698 (doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108698).

Authors: Fionn P. Daly, Kate O’Donnell, Martin P. Davoren, Chris Noone, Peter Weatherburn, Mick Quinlan, Bill Foley, Derval Igoe, Peter M. Barrett

Abstract

Background: Alcohol consumption is a major public health concern in Ireland. Alcohol use disorder (AUD) disproportionately affects men who have sex with men (MSM). However, little is known about the prevalence of AUD in this group in Ireland specifically, and the characteristics of MSM who may struggle with this.

Methods: The European MSM Internet Survey 2017 was an online, self-completed, anonymous questionnaire among MSM in Ireland. Standardised questions were used to explore a variety of topics. The validated CAGE-4 questionnaire was used to screen for potential AUD, defined as a CAGE-4 score of ≥2 out of 4. Multivariable-adjusted logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with potential AUD.

Results: In total, 1793 MSM met inclusion criteria. 31 % screened positive for AUD. We observed higher odds of possible AUD among MSM who were bisexual (vs. gay/homosexual) (aOR 1.48 95 %CI 1.01–2.18), native to Ireland (vs. non-native) (aOR 1.49 95 %CI 1.12–1.96), unemployed (vs. employed) (aOR 1.80 95 %CI 1.02–3.16), had used illicit drugs in the previous year (vs. none) (cannabis only, aOR 1.74 95 %CI 1.14–2.63) (other illicit drugs, aOR 2.28 95 %CI 1.67–3.09), reported anxiety/depression (vs. none) (aOR 1.73 95 %CI 1.12–2.66), and MSM who experienced homophobic abuse (vs. never) (aOR 1.55 95 %CI 1.09–2.22). Student MSM were less likely to screen positive for AUD (vs. employed) (aOR 0.65 95 %CI 0.46−0.93).

Conclusions: The prevalence of AUD appears to be higher in the MSM population compared to the general male population in Ireland. Targeted interventions may be warranted to reduce the burden of AUD among MSM.

Keywords: Men who have sex with men (MSM); Alcohol use disorder (AUD); Drug use; Depression/Anxiety; Homophobia; HIV / AIDS

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

Structural stigma and sexual minority men’s depression and suicidality: A multilevel examination of mechanisms and mobility across 48 countries

Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 2021; 130(7):713-726 (doi: 10.1037/abn0000693)

Authors: John E Pachankis, Mark L Hatzenbuehler, Richard Bränström, Axel J Schmidt, Rigmor C Berg, Kai Jonas, Michal Pitoňák, Sladjana Baros, Peter Weatherburn

Abstract

Sexual minority men are at greater risk of depression and suicidality than heterosexuals. Stigma, the most frequently hypothesized risk factor for this disparity, operates across socioecological levels-structural (eg. laws), interpersonal (eg. discrimination), and individual (eg. self-stigma). Although the literature on stigma and mental health has focused on interpersonal and individual forms of stigma, emerging research has shown that structural stigma is also associated with adverse mental health outcomes. However, there is limited data on whether changes in structural stigma, such as when a stigmatized person moves to a lower stigma context, affect mental health, and on the mechanisms underlying this association. To address these questions, we use data from the 2017/18 European Men-who-have-sex-with-men Internet Survey (n = 123,428), which assessed mental health (ie. Patient Health Questionnaire) and psychosocial mediators (ie. sexual orientation concealment, internalized homonegativity, and social isolation). We linked these data to an objective indicator of structural stigma related to sexual orientation-including 15 laws and policies as well as aggregated social attitudes-in respondents’ countries of origin (N = 178) and receiving countries (N = 48). Among respondents who still live in their country of birth (N = 106,883), structural stigma was related to depression and suicidality via internalized homonegativity and social isolation. Among respondents who moved from higher-to-lower structural stigma countries (n = 11,831), longer exposure to the lower structural stigma environments of their receiving countries was associated with a significantly: 1) lower risk of depression and suicidality; 2) lower odds of concealment, internalized homonegativity, and social isolation; and 3) smaller indirect effect of structural stigma on mental health through these mediators. This study provides additional evidence that stigma is a sociocultural determinant of mental health.

© 2021 American Psychological Association 2021, ISSN: 0021-843X

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EMIS 2017 International reports 2017

EMIS-2017: Community Reports Europe

We thank our network partners for their translations of the following Community Reports.

The 3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report, published 14 August 2021, covers the stress factors affecting mental and sexual health and well-being and was coordinated by Mick Quinlan (Gay Health Network, Dublin, Ireland). It has been translated into the six most commonly spoken (apart from English) languages in Europe: German, Russian, French, Turkish, Italian, and Spanish, as well as into Arabic, Czech, and Portuguese. The 3rd community report was funded by Ireland’s Health Services (HSE)

The 2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report, published 27 November 2020, focuses on gay men living with HIV in Europe and was coordinated by Mick Quinlan (Gay Health Network, Dublin, Ireland). It has been translated into the seven most commonly spoken (apart from English) languages in Europe: German, Russian, French, Turkish, Italian, Polish, and Spanish, as well as into Arabic, Czech, and Portuguese. The 2nd community report was funded by Ireland’s Health Services (HSE)

The 1st EMIS-2017 Community Report targeted at EMIS respondents and MSM in general was published in 31 languages by the end of 2018. We thank our network partners for their contributions and translations, and particularly the German NGO Deutsche AIDS-Hilfe for leading the process, and the Swiss AIDS Federation for financial support.

The first Community Report describes safer sex knowledge (including knowledge on Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) and Undetectable=Untransmittable (U=U). The English version was first presented at AIDS2018 in Amsterdam. The Philippines opted out from the 1st Community Report, so it covers 49, not 50, countries.

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Arabic)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Czech)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (English)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (French)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (German)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Italian)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Portuguese)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Russian)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Spanish)

3rd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Turkish)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Arabic)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Czech)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (English)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (French)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (German)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Italian)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Polish)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Portuguese)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Russian)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Spanish)

2nd EMIS-2017 Community Report (Turkish)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Arabic)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Bulgarian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Croatian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Czech)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Danish)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Dutch)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (English)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Estonian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Finnish)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (French)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Switzerland-French)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (German)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Switzerland-German)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Greek)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Hebrew)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Hungarian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Icelandic)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Italian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Switzerland-Italian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Latvian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Lithuanian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Macedonian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Norwegian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Polish)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Portuguese)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Romanian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Russian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Serbian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Slovak)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Slovenian)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Spanish)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Swedish)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Turkish)

1st EMIS-2017 Community Report (Ukrainian)

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

Measures of HIV pre‐exposure prophylaxis uptake among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men in Canada and demographic disparities among those at elevated likelihood for HIV acquisition

AIDS and Behavior, 2021; 25:3638–3650 (doi: 10.1007/s10461-021-03336-3).

Authors: Sean Colyer, Nathan J Lachowsky, Axel J Schmidt, Barry D Adam, Dana Paquette, Trevor A Hart, David J Brennan, Martin Blais, Abigail E Kroch

Abstract

HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is an effective prevention tool being scaled up in Canada. We describe PrEP uptake and identify demographic correlates of uptake among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (gbMSM) at elevated HIV risk using data from an online survey of gbMSM residing in Canada between Oct 2017 and Jan 2018. Among the 969 participants at elevated HIV risk who had recently tested for HIV, 96.0%, 83.3%, 72.6%, and 39.7% reported awareness, knowledge, acceptability, and pursuit of PrEP, respectively; 27.1% had ever and 24.6% were currently taking PrEP. The strongest correlate of PrEP uptake was living in a city of ≥ 500,000 inhabitants; others included being out to all or almost all family, friends, and colleagues regarding sexual attraction to men, greater financial coping, and being 30–49 years of age. Improved upscaling of PrEP in Canada may be accomplished through consideration of these disparities.

Keywords: MSM; pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP); PrEP eligibility; PrEP access; PrEP delivery

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

Der Europäische MSM Internet Survey als Grundlage für die Präventionsarbeit in Deutschland für Männer, die Sex mit Männern haben

Bundesgesundheitsblatt – Gesundheitsforschung – Gesundheitsschutz (doi: 10.1007/s00103-021-03429-3)

Authors: Ulrich Marcus & Susanne B. Schink

Abstract

Background: Sexual minorities are highly vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections (STIs), mental health problems such as depression and suicidality, and substance use- associated health and social problems. 

Research question: We describe selected findings from the European MSM Internet Survey (EMIS) 2017, one of the largest online surveys of men who have sex with men, and discuss their implications for prevention in MSM in Germany.

Materials and methods: The overall aim of EMIS-2017 was to collect data for planning HIV and STI prevention and treatment programs. The target population were men living in Europe who have sex with men and/or are attracted to men. The questionnaire contained questions on demography, morbidities, beha- viour, needs and interventions. Participants were recruited mainly via two popular online dating platforms from 10/2017 to 01/2018.

Results and discussion: EMIS-2017 shows that MSM are severely affected by psychological stress and STIs. In terms of psychological stress, younger MSM suffer in particular from depressive disorders and suicidality, while the use of alcohol and other psychoactive substances is of concern among older MSM. MSM are more often affected by STIs than the heterosexual majority population. Many STIs are a- or pauci-symptomatic; thus, screening based on risk-assessment is favoured to detect infections. However, for the time being, for some STIs there is no medical and/or public health evidence to support treatment of asymptomatic infections. EMIS-2017 identified needs by subgroups as far as knowledge gaps on PEP (HIV post-exposure prophylaxis) and PrEP (HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis), being reached by information and prevention offers as well as insufficient uptake of such offers.

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

Monitoring implementation of the Dublin Declaration on partnership to fight HIV/AIDS in Europe and Central Asia: 2018 progress report

ECDC Technical Report, 2020 (doi: 10.2900/492423).

Authors: Rosalie Hayes, Yusef Azad, Cheryl Gowar, Alison Brown & Valerie Delpech, in collaboration with Axel J. Schmidt and Ulrich Marcus This report is part of the 2018 progress reports monitoring the implementation of the Dublin Declaration. It presents the situation among men who have sex with men (MSM), a key group affected by HIV in the WHO European Region, and outlines priorities for action. In addition, case studies provided by health authorities highlight developments in public health policy and programme implementation, specific to MSM.

Executive Summary

Men who have sex with men have been disproportionately affected by the HIV epidemic since its start in Europe in the 1980s. The burden of HIV on this group has been exacerbated by homophobia and HIV stigmatisation, which hampered the public health response and the availability and accessibility of prevention tools. Today, sex between men remains the main mode of transmission of HIV in Western Europe.

While some countries report a recent decline in HIV incidence among MSM as a result of successful combination prevention efforts, diagnoses have continued to rise in the majority of countries in Europe and Central Asia. In particular, there has been an eight-fold increase (710%) in diagnoses in the East sub-region since 2008.

In the 2018 reporting year, the ECDC survey was used to collect data to monitor implementation of the 2004 Dublin Declaration from the national health authorities in the Region. The survey contained specific questions in relation to the HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men, in addition to questions relating to current national prevention interventions, policies and barriers to the public health response to the epidemic.

Forty-six of the 52 reporting countries prioritise MSM as a key population in their HIV response, with 31 countries selecting MSM as their top priority (17 West; 13 Centre; 1 East). Findings are compared against the global 90-90-90 targets. The report also includes key findings from the European Men who have sex with Men Internet Survey 2017 (EMIS-2017).

The report presents the continuum of HIV care across the region and classifies results according to countries that provided data on: (a) all four stages, (b) no  stages, and (c) at least two consecutive stages of the continuum of care nationally as well as disaggregated data, where available, for MSM. Only 19 countries, i.e. less than half of reporting countries, were able to submit two consecutive stages of data for the HIV continuum for MSM. It is hence difficult to gauge what is the real situation for this key population is across Europe and Central Asia.

Based on the findings, priorities for action to address the HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men are outlined in the report.

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

Are PrEP services in France reaching all those exposed to HIV who want to take PrEP? MSM respondents who are eligible but not using PrEP (EMIS 2017)

AIDS Care 2020; 32(2):47-56 (doi: 10.1080/09540121.2020.1739219).

Authors: Margot Annequin, Virginie Villes, Rosemary M. Delabre, Tristan Alain, Stéphane Morel, David Michels, Axel Jeremias Schmidt, Annie Velter & Daniela Rojas Castro

Abstract

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is fully reimbursed by the French health insurance system since 2016. However, uptake of PrEP is slower than expected and little is known about men who have sex with men (MSM) who are eligible for PrEP according to French guidelines, but not using it. This study aims to (1) assess and describe MSM that are eligible to PrEP but not using it, and (2) identify potential individual and structural barriers of PrEP uptake among eligible MSM who are aware and intend to take PrEP. Data from EMIS-2017, a cross-sectional internet survey among gay, bisexual, and other MSM, were used. Among 7965 respondents without diagnosed HIV, 9.2% were PrEP users. Among 7231 non-PrEP users, 35.2% were eligible to PrEP and 15.2% were eligible, aware and intended to take PrEP. Eligible MSM who are not using PrEP are mostly younger, students, less “out”, living in small cities, using condoms more frequently but still with low self-efficacy regarding safe sex and more distant from preventive health care and information than PrEP users. Despite free PrEP availability in France, results suggest that PrEP is not fully accessible and that there is a need to increase PrEP demand and decentralize PrEP delivery.

Keywords: MSM; pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP); PrEP eligibility; PrEP access; PrEP delivery

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

European Men-Who-Have-Sex-With-Men Internet Survey (EMIS-2017): design and methods

Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 2020; 17:543–557 (doi: 10.1007/s13178-019-00413-0).

Authors: Peter Weatherburn, Ford Hickson, David S. Reid, Ulrich Marcus & Axel J. Schmidt

Abstract

Men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM) carry a disproportionate burden of sexually transmitted infections across Europe. Health planners require sexual health needs assessment data to respond appropriately. In addition, surveillance of risk and precaution behaviours in this population enables evaluative judgements of policy responses. The European MSM Internet Survey (EMIS-2017) aimed to repeat the pan-European online survey on male homosexual behaviour conducted in 2010, both to update information required to plan and monitor health promotion interventions and consolidate harmonisation of existing behavioural surveillance approaches. Our study team collaborated with more than 200 partners from academia, public health and civil society across 50 countries. Starting from our previous EMIS-2010 questionnaire, partners engaged in three rounds of iterative survey development and piloting until the final content was agreed. Transfer to an online survey application was followed by further pretesting before translation into 32 additional languages, final testing and sign-off. The survey was available to complete online in 33 languages simultaneously from 18 October 2017 to 31 January 2018. Ten international MSMdating mobile apps were paid to send short promotional messages, and national partners promoted the survey via at least another 272 websites and social media accounts. Real-time monitoring of responses facilitated targeted advertising by country and recruitment source. Ultimately 144,305 cases were submitted of which 137,358 (95.2%) were eligible for inclusion. EMIS-2017 demonstrated the feasibility of multi-country online MSM surveying with public funding. Meaningful involvement of a large number of collaborators in the survey design and its execution ensured successful recruitment. Careful design, piloting and presentation ensured the survey was acceptable and had authority and perceived community benefit. Partners in 38 countries have already been supplied with a national database of 100 or more respondents for national analysis, while the study team has focussed on international comparisons among 137,358 respondents in 50 countries.

Keywords: Male homosexuality, Online survey, Behavioural surveillance, Prevention, Internet, HIV, Sexually transmitted infections

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EMIS 2017 Journal Articles 2017

Monitoring the responses to hepatitis B and C epidemics in the EU/EEA Member States 2019

ECDC Technical Report, 2020 (doi: 10.2900/034039).

Authors: Erika Duffell and Teymur Noori

This report provides the first collation of data relating to the monitoring of the progress towards the elimination of hepatitis B and C for EEA countries and the UK. Data were collated from a range of existing sources pertaining to epidemiological context, prevention and control, and impact. Data were also collected directly from all Member States on testing and treatment indicators for the continuum of care in relation to hepatitis B and C. Despite the limitations of existing data sources and inherent difficulties arising from the diversity of data and gaps in completeness, this collated information represents an important step towards understanding the priority areas for action and gaps in the national responses to the hepatitis B and C epidemics. The data also provide an important baseline to help map progress towards the WHO elimination targets and ultimately achieve the 2030 sustainable development goals.  

Executive Summary

Based on estimates of prevalence in the general population, there are an estimated total of 4.7 million chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) cases and 3.9 million chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) cases in the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA). Although the region is a low prevalence region for both infections, there is wide variation among countries with estimates of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) prevalence in the general population up to 4.4% and anti-HCV prevalence to 5.9%. Estimates of HBsAg among key risk groups show similar variation with very high prevalence of HBsAg reported among prisoners (25.2% in Bulgaria) and injecting drug users (5.6% in Cyprus), highlighting gaps in vaccination programmes. There is greater variation in the range prevalence of anti-HCV among key risk groups with extremely high levels of infection (>50%) reported among injecting drug users in most countries with available data and among prisoners (45.8% in Finland).

Estimates of the size of key populations affected by hepatitis are important but are lacking in most countries. Estimates of the prevalence of injecting drug use are available from the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and these show variation between countries. Data from three countries indicate that nearly a half of those injecting report having shared needles/syringes in the last four weeks.

Vaccination is a major component of any hepatitis B prevention strategy and data indicate that although four countries lack a national policy for universal vaccination of children, 83% of EU/EEA countries that implement childhood vaccination have achieved 90% coverage with three doses of HBV vaccine. Robust data on coverage among key populations such as prisoners and people who inject drugs (PWID) are lacking and available information suggests gaps in local policies targeting these groups.

Perinatal transmission of HBV is not commonly reported in EU/EEA countries. Countries implement different strategies to prevent mother-to-child transmission but data are lacking on these programmes. Available data from the five countries that implement universal new-born vaccination indicate that four of these countries (80%) report 85% coverage with a timely HBV birth dose1 and all the countries that implement antenatal screening and have available data report 85% coverage of screening in pregnant women and 90% coverage with post-exposure prophylaxis.

In terms of blood safety, the prevalence of HBV and HCV infections among first time blood donors is low and the number of transfusion associated HBV and HCV infections reported by EU/EEA countries is low. All EU/EEA countries screen blood donations using quality assured methods in accordance with to EU standards and have haemovigilance systems in place.

Transmission of infection among men who have sex with men (MSM) was reported to account for around one in seven acute HBV and HCV infections in 2017. Evidence from EMIS-2017 indicates gaps in service provision in relation to HBV vaccination targeting MSM.

PWID are disproportionally affected by HBV and HCV infections due to the sharing of injecting equipment and epidemiological evidence indicates a high prevalence of both infections, especially HCV, and ongoing transmission. Countries have implemented prevention programmes targeting PWID but data on the coverage are lacking from half the countries. The available data indicate that only a small proportion of countries have achieved the 2020 target for coverage of needle and syringe programmes (NSP) but the majority of countries with data have reached the 40% coverage target for opioid substitution therapy (OST).

Around a third of all EU/EEA countries reported no action plan or strategy for hepatitis prevention and control and, of those with a plan/strategy, nearly half reported there was no funding for implementation. However, it should be noted that the existence of an action plan or strategy does not always correlate with progress made at the local level towards elimination.

Overall, 23 countries provided data for at least one of the four key stages of the continuum of hepatitis B care and 27 countries provided data for hepatitis C care. Two countries were able to provide data along the continuum for hepatitis B and 11 countries provided data for hepatitis C. There were significant gaps in the completeness of data and the robustness of the data is suboptimal in many areas. Increasing the availability and robustness of data is important, as it enables countries to assess with confidence the effectiveness of their hepatitis B and C response; monitor progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and European Action Plan targets and identify areas that require greater attention, particularly the significant health inequalities faced by certain key population groups.

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